A Protocol for Imbas Forosnai

by Micheál O'Miadhachain

I believe that much of what is being written in the Celtic Reconstructionist Pagan community regarding Imbas Forosnai, is being influenced by eclectic leanings and a desire to compare Imbas Forosnai to practices, which some have termed “shamanism”, present in other cultures.  Additionally, I find individuals who are attempting to try and fit Imbas Forosnai into spiritual practices borrowed from Eastern cultures such as comparing the cauldrons mentioned in the work “Cauldron of Poesy” [1] to chakras.[2]  While it is understandable that some may argue that this is appropriate, given the common origins of Indo-European cultures and languages, I also feel that it is problematic when attempting to understand this practice in a truly Northern European or polytheistic Irish mindset. The purpose of this particular protocol is to present others with an option of a reconstructed Imbas Forosnai practice that is devoid of such influences. 

Imbas Forosnai is a method through which the seer poet of ancient Ireland, the Filidh, obtained divine poetic inspiration[3] and often comes with the warning that its practice may cause death or may cause the individuals who attempt it to go mad.   I believe that this is true to a certain extent, however, my experience has also shown me that those individuals who are most at risk for such things are those individuals who do not take care of themselves spiritually and physically.  In order to be successful with such practices, one must be comfortable with one’s self and assured of one’s purpose in life.  One must be able to cultivate successful personal relationships and friendships.  One must have a personal relationship to what the theologian Rudolph Otto called the “numinous” and have a set regimen of prayers and offerings that one makes to the Deities.  One must not “self-medicate” or abuse the body through the use of illicit drugs or other substances, engage in anger, hate or unhealthy relationships.  One must have self knowledge and be comfortable with all aspects of one’s being – spiritually, physically, mentally, sexually and such.  In other words, one must know where one is going in life and be mature.  Such individuals, I have found are stable within their being and rarely risk madness or death from seeking Imbas

However, I still urge caution to those who feel they meet the above criteria and I suggest certain precautions should be taken when one is attempting the Imbas Forosnai protocol.  The following are my suggestions:

1.       Never attempt the protocol in isolation.  The protocol is written for a group.  I recommend never attempting it alone.

2.      Have a thorough knowledge of the myths, lore and symbolism of pagan Ireland.  This is the “energy” you will be tapping into. 

The first suggestion is rather self-explanatory, but I do feel that the second suggestion requires a little more discussion.  In pre-Christian Ireland, Imbas Forosnai was apparently a rite performed by the filidh or the cultural elite of ancient Ireland.  It was a technique only performed after years of study and training[4].  In order to be successful at this practice, the individual attempting Imbas ( i.e., the “seer”) must have a respect for the importance of the rite and an understanding of what one is attempting to do.  This includes the education necessary to interpret the results of the protocol and an idea of what is meant by the term “Imbas”. 

Additionally, one must have a modicum of knowledge of how to reach this “state” during the protocol.  I term this as the “internal machinations” of the seer.  Quite simply, it is not enough to just run through the movement of the ritual and say the words.  One must know why one is saying and doing the words and actions respectively.

As mentioned previously, one could say that Imbas is basically inspiration, or more specifically poetic inspiration.  It is however, difficult to determine how one arrives at this state which is tantamount to the protocol of the ritual.  This is what I alluded to earlier, and is what I assigned the term “internal machinations” of the seer.

One of the best ways to understand what these practices are, and perhaps the easiest to visualize, is through the often quoted, and I believe often misinterpreted, medieval Irish text entitled “The Cauldron of Poesy”, which Breatnach discusses in detail[5].   Essentially, this appears to be a metaphorical work detailing how Imbas is arrived at through the internal machinations of the seer.    As I mentioned in the introductory paragraph, many modern commentators in the Celtic Reconstructionist Pagan movement, such as Laurie[6], have, attempted to take the ideas presented in this work outside of the ancient Irish understanding and liken the internal cauldrons to what could be termed a “chakra” system where the cauldrons must be “activated” and exist in unison in a sort of alignment in the body.  I do not believe this to be so and I do not believe that this system, particularly the existence of an alignment of these cauldrons in the body, is supported in the text.  I believe that the use of “cauldrons” in the work is purely a metaphorical and literary device used to describe the internal changes in the seer when he/she attempts to pursue Imbas.  I do not believe that the author of this text means for the cauldrons to be understood as “physical” energy points or containers as is alluded to by some other commentators[7].  The container, for which the original author uses the cauldron metaphor, is our own internal understanding as well as the progress and changes in our persona that we make when we  attempt pursue knowledge regarding what the famous theologian Otto termed the “numinous”.

In the original text[8], the original author details three cauldrons.  These cauldrons are termed the Cauldron of Goriath (coire Goriath), the Cauldron of Knowledge (coire Sofis) and the Cauldron of Èrmae (coire Èrmae).  The Cauldron of Goriath is the cauldron of information that is given to all people, save the “ignorant”, in their youth.  It is the source of all of our understanding of the factual information of languages – syntax, prosody and etc.  I would suggest, also, that this may involve other factual knowledge that is easily memorized and assimilated, but this is not supported in text.  This cauldron sits upright in most individuals.  The knowledge contained in this cauldron is the knowledge that is the “base” of all other forms of knowledge.  It is the beginning stages of our basic learning.  It is our ability to think and that which makes us sentient beings.  I believe that this metaphorical cauldron can stay upright and never evolve, but in a certain number of individuals who strive for further knowledge, this cauldron seems to evolve and transform into the Cauldron of Èrmae.  This transformation indicates a higher level of knowledge at which the individual arrives and only forms in individuals who pursue it.  In other words, if an individual is on a specific pursuit of knowledge regarding the numinous, and this knowledge is gained, then the Cauldron of Goriath transforms into the Cauldron of Èrmae.  The text also seems to suggest that that this may occur because of ancestry and I would interpret that to mean that there must be a certain degree of innate talent.  In other words, one must have the “sight”.  However, as indicated, I also believe that some may gain the ability to transform the Cauldron of Goriath into the Cauldron of Èrmae through rigorous spiritual discipline and life experiences.  The text also seems to suggest this as it is mentioned that the Cauldron of Èrmae exists on its side in those that practice “bairdne” (bardic verse) and “raind”[9]

I would suggest that in most people, this is the only “permanent” transformation, but it also appears to be the most important of transformations. The Cauldron of Èrmae seems to be the “seed” to reaching Imbas in that it is, at least in my opinion, through the transformation of the Cauldron of Èrmae into the Cauldron of Knowledge that Imbas is reached.  In other words, Imbas can metaphorically be seen as “overflowing” from the Cauldron of Knowledge. 

The Cauldron of Èrmae first emerges in a position on its side.  It also stays in this position in most individuals who have attained it unless it is acted upon directly, in which case it would turn upright and then transform into the Cauldron of Knowledge.  This is, of course, speaking metaphorically. This “upright” turning is not an actual physical act, but symbolic of gaining another stage of learning and opening one’s self up to divine inspiration from the Gods.  I would also suggest that after it has been acted upon, in most individuals, it “falls” (for lack of a better word) back to the sideways position and again becomes the Cauldron of Èrmae.  In other words, in many people this transformation is only a temporary state, a state of increased and temporary “knowledge” and being that allows the individual to partake in inspiration from the Gods.  Again, this is my own interpretation, but I believe that it makes more sense than suggesting that these cauldrons act as a “chakra” system and exist simultaneously in different physical regions of the body.  I believe that all cauldrons exist metaphorically, in the thinking center of the individual and must transform, not activate.

So, to just recap a bit, most people have the Cauldron of Goriath existing in an upright position.  In some people, this Cauldron transforms into the Cauldron of Èrmae.  This occurs in individuals who seek another level of understanding and knowledge of the numinous.  In these individuals, the Cauldron of Èrmae remains in a position on its side, until it is acted upon and stimulated by intense spiritual experience and it is then brought upright transforming into the Cauldron of Knowledge.  This allows the seer to reach Imbas. 

Thus the most important change, and the purpose of the protocol, becomes the transformation of the Cauldron of Èrmae into the Cauldron of Knowledge leading to Imbas.  The text suggests that this can occur through experiences of sadness and joy.  In my opinion the easiest way to transform this cauldron into the Cauldron of Knowledge, is through a specific ritual protocol making offerings and praises to the Gods and causing divine joy.  Breatnach writes:

“I take this to mean that the case ability is not already present, but has to be supplied, and that the influence comes not from within the person, but from without.  This is clear from paragraph 12 which deals with divine joy and which speaks of the coming of divine grace to the cauldron and turning it to the upright position.” [10]

Basically one may cause the transformation, or the “turning … to the upright position” [11] of the Cauldron of Èrmae into the Cauldron of Knowledge, ultimately leading to Imbas, is via prayers and offerings to the Gods.  Thus, I believe that is why the offering of the meat and invocation to the Gods in the Imbas Forosnai rite is so important.  

My whole perception, therefore, of this reconstructed protocol of Imbas Forosnai is to allow the seer to turn the Cauldron of Èrmae into an upright position and have it transform into the Cauldron of Knowledge, thus producing Imbas, through divine intervention.  It seems to make sense, but again it is my own interpretation and is not to be taken as factual evidence that the Ancient Irish believed the same thing.  In fact, this is only one possible way in which this ritual could be reconstructed.

So, for practical purposes, the seer must focus intently on sparking the divine joy of the gods that is being brought to them via the prayers, offerings and the desire of those involved in the ritual to “commune” with the gods.  This is something that is not easily taught, but is learned only by experience.  This is the true “internal machination” of the seer. 

If the act is successful and divine joy is inspired by the ritual, the seer should begin to find themselves in an ecstatic trance-like state and should begin to utter poetic words of divine inspiration.  The seer should speak any words that come to them freely and without reservation.  The words should be recorded and should be interpreted after the ritual has ended. 

After the words have been uttered and messages received, the seer should then be called back by name.  Most likely, the seer will come back on his or her own accord.  However, simply calling and seer’s name and telling them to return will help the seer to return to his/her normal state.  At this time, due to the lack of “divine joy” and the removal of the cause of the joy “the ritual and desire to commune with the deities”, the Cauldron of Knowledge will turn again into the the Cauldron of Èrmae.

My protocol and commentary, suggests that I do not believe that the Cauldron of Èrmae can be permanently changed into the Cauldron of Knowledge and this is something of which I am not entirely sure.  I believe that it is difficult for an individual to remain in a state where the Cauldron of Èrmae is permanently transformed into the Cauldron of Knowledge, but I also believe that it can happen but that it only happens (or has happened) in a very select and talented few in history and in mythology.

Again, the opinions in this commentary are my own, but I have attempted to support many of them with information found in the cited texts.   I have also attempted to offer a commentary devoid of any inclinations toward chakra systems or an activation of “physical” energy points; rather I have attempted to offer an analysis in a metaphorical sense as an understanding of the transformation that the seer goes through internally when attempting to reach Imbas. 

Again, I urge anyone who reads this to engage in this practice with extreme caution and not alone, but within a group of experienced individuals.

I have separated the protocol into three parts.  The first part deals with the preparation, both of the area where the ritual will occur and also with the seer.  The second part deals with the general offerings and praises to the Deities, ancestors and others and the third part deals with the actual act of attaining Imbas through both the internal machinations of the seer and the external influences of the ritual upon the seer.

The basis of this Imbas Forosnai protocol is found in Nora Chadwick’s discussion of Imbas Forosnai[12].  In this work the author suggests different versions of the practice found in mythological references and old texts.   I have selected one of these variations on which to base the protocol.  The basic parts of this ritual are as follows:

1. The seer chews a piece of raw pig meat
2. The seer places this chewed meat on a stone behind the door
3. The seer says prayers and chants over this piece of meat
4. The seer offers the piece of meat to the Gods and "calls to them"
5. The seer chant over the palms of his/her hands
6. The seer calls again on the Gods
7. The seer place his/her palms on his/her cheeks and sleeps or goes into a trance while others watch over him/her.

Essentially, I have taken this outline and placed it within a ritual format adding various prayers to the Gods, ancestors and other spiritual beings.  I have taken the prayers the seer says in the first part directly from the “Cauldron of Poesy” work[13] and this is noted.  I have also freely adapted versions of prayers found in the Carmina Gadelica[14]. 

The ritual basically follows a format that I have experimented with and it greatly differs from ritual format with which others may be familiar and which is based upon Western ceremonial magic and Wiccan protocol.

Part 1 – The Preparation

A leader should be chosen to head the ritual.  Four additional watchers need to be chosen.  Minimally three individuals are needed to perform this ritual – one leader, at least one watcher and one seer.

A drinking vessel should be filled with an offering liquid and placed in the center of the altar. This will be used to salute the three realms.

Offerings should be made at this time to the Deities and to the ancestors.  Offerings should also be made to propitiate the spirits of the land or of the house where you may be working and the Good Folk.  Any fires or candles may be lit at this time.

The seer proceeds to the doorway of the room where the ritual is to occur.  A flat stone should be placed at the doorway.  The seer places a piece of raw pork (dried pork or some other similar substance may be used, but this is not supported by the text) in his/her mouth and chews on it.  Taking it out of his/her mouth, he/she places it on the flat stone and prays over it.  I use the following prayer taken directly from the “Cauldron of Poesy”:

“I acclaim the Cauldron of Èrmai

With understandings of grace

With Accumulations of knowledge

With strewing of imbas,

The estuary of wisdom

The uniting of scholarship

The stream of splendour

The exalting of the ignoble

The mastering of language

Quick understanding

The darkening of speech

The craftsman of synchronism

The cherishing of pupils,

Where what is due is attended to

Where senses are distinguished

Where one approaches musical art

Where knowledge is propagated

Where the noble are enriched

Where he who is not noble is enobled

Where names are exalted

Where praises are related

By lawful means

With distinctions of ranks

With pure estimations of nobility

With the fair speech of wise men

With streams of scholarship,

A noble brew in which is brewed

The basis of all knowledge

Which is set out according to law

Which is advanced to after study

Which imbas quickens

Which joy converts

Which is revealed through sorrow;

It is an enduring power

Whose protection does not diminish.

I acclaim the Cauldron of Èrmai” [15]

After saying this prayer, the seer then offers the meat to the Gods and calls upon them.  I suggest Manannan, Brighid and Oghma, but this is my own preference.

Following this the seer chants over his/her palms.  I use the following from the “Cauldron of Poesy”:

“The Cauldron of Èrmai

It grants, it is granted

It extends, it is extended

It nourishes, it is nourished

It magnifies, it is magnified

It requests, it is requested of

It acclaims, it is acclaimed

It preserves, it is preserved

It arranges, it is arranged

It supports, it is supported

Good is the source of measuring,

Good is the acquisition of speech,

Good is the confluence of power

Which builds up strength.

It is greater than any domain,

It is better than any patrimony

It brings one to wisdom,

It separates on from fools.”[16]

 The seer then again invokes the guidance of the same Gods and places the palms of his/her hands on his/her cheeks.  The seer then lays flat on his/her back on the floor in the middle of the ritual area with his/her palms still on his/her cheeks.  He/she may engage in breathing exercises during this time.  When doing this, I prefer to place two small pebbles upon my eyelids, but this is my own preference and is not supported by any textual reference.

The watchers then stand around the seer while the rest of the ritual continues.

 At this time the rest honor the three realms.  The Leader stands at the altar, takes the drinking vessel from the altar and holds it up above the altar.

The leader raises the drinking vessel above his/head saying:

To the great plain of the earth! 

 (He/she then pours some offering liquid on the ground). 

All then respond:

To the Land!

The leader then does the same saying:

To the place of the waves, the deep realm!

(Again, he/she pours some offering liquid on the ground).

All then respond:

To the Sea!

And finally:

To the great upper expanse. 

(Again, he/she pours some offering liquid on the ground).

All then respond:

To the Sky!

Following this, the leader replaces the drinking vessel on the altar.  Then, with arms outstretched says:

Upon the three realms we swear.  Upon the Great Tree we are. 

Part 2 – Praises to the Gods

The following refrain is adapted from the Carmina Gadelica and has been put into a call and response format:

 (The Leader questions and the community responds)

Who is he that approaches on the bare floor?
Manannan in his mists does come.
Who are they by my bed?
The lovely Eriu with Banba and Fotla are seen.
Who are those that watch over my sleep?
The Dagda and his daughter Brigid are they.
Who is that anear me?
Lugh Himself, The King of the sun, it is.
Who are they at the back of my head?
The Mothers without beginning, without time.[17]

(Some individuals may like to make a sign of welcome at the beginning of each of the verses for the individual Gods, Goddesses and Ancestors.  Individuals may wish to stomp their feet, yell a welcome, tap a staff on the floor or some other means to let the Deity know that he/she is honored and welcome.)

To Manannan Mac Lir

We honor you. 

To the Giver of magical Gifts

We ask for blessings.

To the Keeper of the Veil

We remember your name. 

To Danu

We honor you.

To the Mother of the Tuatha De Danann

We ask for blessings.

To Herself of the Land.

We remember your name.
  

To the Dagda

We honor you. 

To the all Father

We ask for blessings. 

To the Dagda who plays the Magic Harp of the Seasons

We remember your name.

To Lugh

We honor you. 

To the Son of Ethniu and Cian

We ask for blessings.

To the Many Talented One of the Hound.

We remember your name.

To Brigid

We honor you.
To the Great Goddess of Poets

We ask for blessings.

To the Keeper of the Sacred Flame

We remember your name.

To Oghma

We honor you. 

To the Champion of His Tribe

We ask for blessings. 

To the Giver of writing and Guide of diviners

We remember your name.

To Creidhne, to Goibnu and to Luchtaine

We honor you.

To the Forgers of Old

We ask for blessings. 

To the Forgers of the Magical Weapons

We remember your name.

To Aine

We honor you.

To the Red Sun of Summer

We ask for blessings.

To Aine of red mare and of the cattle

We remember your name.

To Grian

We honor you.

To the White Sun of Winter

We ask for blessings.

To Grian of the Sacred Hill

We Remember your name

To Oengus Mac Ind Og

We honor you.

To He of Love and of Youth

We ask for blessings.

To the Son of Boann and the Dagda

We remember your name.

To Dian Cecht

We honor you.

To the Healer

We ask for blessings.

To the Healer with the Holy Spring

We remember your name

To Airmed

We honor you.

To the One of the plants

We ask for blessings. 

To the Divine Herbalist

We remember your name.

To Miach

We honor you.

To the Great Healer slain for Your art

We ask for blessings.

To the Restorer of that which was lost

We remember your name.

To the Morrigan

We honor you.

To the Fierce Lady of the Battle

We give you reverence.

To the Phantom Queen

We remember your name.

To Nemain

We honor you.

To Macha

We give you reverence.

To Badb

We remember your name.

To all Tuatha De Danann

We honor you.

 To all Gods not named

We ask for blessings. 

For all of the Great Tribe of Danu

We remember you.

 (The Leader again questions and the community responds):

Who is he that approaches on the bare floor?
Manannan in his mists does come.
Who are they by my bed?
The lovely Eriu with Banba and Fotla are seen.
Who are those that watch over my sleep?
The Dagda and his daughter Brigid are they.
Who is that anear me?
Lugh Himself, The King of the sun, it is.
Who are they at the back of my head?
The Mothers without beginning, without time.[18]

 (We Remember the Good Folk and the Spirits of the Land where we work):

To the Aos Sí

We honor you. 

To all House Guardians and Workers

We ask for your blessings.

To all the Good Neighbors,

We remember you.

To all Spirits of the Land

We honor you.

To all Spirits of the Mountains, Hills and Mounds

We ask for blessings. 

To all Spirits of this Land

We remember you.

To all Spirits of Forests and Sacred Groves

We honor you.

To all Spirits of Oak, Ash and Thorn

We ask for blessings.

To all Spirits of Tree and Vine

We remember you.

 (The Leader again questions and the community responds):

Who is he that approaches on the bare floor?
Manannan in his mists does come.
Who are they by my bed?
The lovely Eriu with Banba and Fotla are seen.
Who are those that watch over my sleep?
The Dagda and his daughter Brigid are they.
Who is that anear me?
Lugh Himself, The King of the sun, it is.
Who are they at the back of my head?
The Mothers without beginning, without time.[19]

(We remember the Heroes of Old)

To the Fianna Éireann

We honor you.

To the Warriors of the Land

We ask for blessings.

To Cumhaill Captain of the Fianna

We remember your name.

To Fionn

We honor you. 

To Fionn mac Cumhaill

We ask for blessings. 

To Fionn the Fair

We remember your name.
 

To Díarmait ua Duibne

We honor you. 

To Díarmait ua Duibne of the many feats.

We ask for blessings. 

To Díarmait ua Duibne of the Guardian of the magic tree.

We remember your name.

To Oisin

We honor you. 

To Oisin the Poet

We ask for blessings. 

To Oisin the Warrior

We remember your name.

To Cu Chulainn

We honor you. 

To the Hound of Chulainn

We ask for blessings. 

To Cu Chulainn of the Red Branch and the Son of Lugh

We remember your name.

To Fergus Mac Roich

We honor you.

To the Red Branch

We ask for blessings.

To Fergus Mac Roich, Champion of the Red Branch

We remember your name.

To Conall Cernach

We honor you.

To the Red Branch

We ask for blessings.

To the Great Warrior of the Red Branch

We remember your name.

To Madb

We honor you.

To Queen Madb

We ask for blessings. 

To Madb the Warrior Queen of Connacht

We remember your name.

To the Heroes of Old

We honor you.

To the Warriors of Old

We Ask for your strength and blessings.

To the Heroes and Warriors of Old

We remember your name.

To Cathbaid

We honor you.

To the High Druid of Ulster

We ask for blessings. 

To Cathbaid the Great Seer

We remember your name.

To Finegas

We honor you. 

To The Searcher of Knowledge

We ask for blessings. 

To Finegas teacher of Finn

We remember your name.

To all Druids of Old

We honor you. 

To all Priests and Priestesses of our Ancestors

We ask for your guidance and wisdom.

To all Wise Men and Women of Old.

We remember you.

To All of Our Ancestors

We honor you.

To all the Ancestors we know

We ask for blessings. 

To all those Ancestors who are forgotten to us by name

We remember you today (tonight).  Be with us, protect us and guide use today (tonight).

(the Leader  now says):

May all of the Ancestors of Old and all of the Good People of Peace,

And those of the Tribe of the Goddess Danu

Watch over us, guide us and protect us.

(the community responds):

May all of the spirits of land, sky and sea protect us and guide us.

May the Great Danu herself bless and guide us.

(The Leader now says)

We will kindle the fire,

In the presence of the ancestors and heroes of old,

In the presence of Brigid of the loveliest form,

In the presence of Oengus of the myriad charms,

Without malice, without jealousy, without envy,

Without fear, without terror of anything under the sun,

The great mothers Danu, Domna and Anu to shield us,

And kindle in us the welcome of them,

To the strangers, to our friends and to our kindred all.[20]

Part 3 – The Act of Attaining Imbas and Receiving Inspiration, Via the Seer, Through Our Joy in the Gods

At this time the four watchers begin to chant while sitting around the seer.  

First Watcher begins in a low tone:

Through our joy in Manannan, Oghma and Brighid, open the eyes of the one.

The First Watcher continues to chant this while the second watcher chants the same in a slightly higher tone and etc. until all four watchers are chanting.

This should carry on for some time and until the seer begins to utter inspired or prophetic words.  During this time, the seer should be concentrating on the “divine joy” of the gods and allowing the gods to filter this joy through them thus creating the idea of the metaphorical Cauldron of Èrmae transforming into the Cauldron of Knowledge.

When the seer is finished giving the message or prophesying, he or she should be called back by name and the stones should be removed from his/her eyes.  All singing and prayers should also end at this time.

The leader approaches the altar and simply says:

We thank the Deities for the honor of allowing us to hear their words.  Allow for your gifted one to return safely to our realm. We thank them for the gift of their words uttered here.

All respond:

“The work is finished.  In the name of the Gods and Goddesses and our Ancestors of Old, we depart.”

The seer should be helped to his/her feet and provided with food to eat and something to drink.

 Following the rite, it is preferable for the community to meet for some sort of celebration.  This could take the form of a gathering with food and drink with traditional music and storytelling or some other celebration.  Discussion of the messages received should also be discussed and interpreted during this time.

Offerings to the Deities, ancestors, spirits of the land and the People of the Mounds should be burned or taken outside and disposed of in a way respectful of the environment. 

This concludes the protocol.

Michael Meehan is a Celtic reconstructionist pagan with a specific interest in ancient Irish polytheism.  He is one of the co-founders of the Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans of the Delaware Valley.

References:

Binchy, D.A. “Bretha D?in Ch?ct”.  Èriu. 20 (1966): 1-66.

Breatnach, Liam. “The Cauldron of Poesy”.  Èriu. 33 (1981): 45-93

Carmichael, Alexander. (ed). Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations Vol. I. 1900.  Accessed

            2 September 2008 < http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/cg1/index.htm>,

< http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/cg1/cg1090.htm>, < http://www.sacred-/

texts.com/neu/celt/cg1/cg1091.htm>

Chadwick,  Nora K. “Imbas Forosnai”.  Scottish Gaelic Studies.4 pt 2 (1935).  Accessed

     2 September 2008 < http://www.geocities.com/athens/delphi/4715/imbasforosnai.html>

Laurie, Erynn Rowan. “The Cauldron of Poesy” Madstone Press, 1996.  Accessed 2 September

     2008 < http://www.thunderpaw.com/neocelt/poesy.htm>